The rights of women in ancient Athens were restricted in all aspects. Under the law women were no considered citizens of the state, nor slaves, concubines, freedmen, freed women, and foreigners. A woman was defined in Athens by her abilities to produce male heirs and ensure the prosperity of her oikos. In order to better understand the role of women in ancient Athens, it is important to discuss women's participation in the oikos, polis and religious festivals.
Within the polis, women married to Athenian citizens were continually deprived of their citizenship within their own communities and domestic households. For centuries, the Athenian society girls were taught how to maintain the status of a good wife and also learned tasks in order to maintain her own oikoi upon marriage. Marriages in ancient Athens were always arranged between the heads of two oikoi, who were always men. A marriage was almost always arranged to better the financial status of each family (oikos), and was seen as a "lending out" of the daughter to the other family. If the wife did not satisfy her husband's needs by producing a male heir or by fulfilling the duties required of her oikos, then her dowry could be returned to her father. Once the dowry was returned to the father, the husband could divorce her and remarry. The woman would also be allowed to remarry but only if someone would actually take her (Fantham, Foley, Kampen, Pomeroy and Shapiro 71-72). As a wife of an Athenian citizen, she would not be able to make any important financial or social decisions without the supervision of her husband or another male guardian.
Even though Athenian wives in theory were not allowed to make the decisions in the private and public spheres, they played a vital role in maintaining order during the absence of their husband. The main role of a wife in the household was to produce legitimate heirs for her oikos and to ensure that it would prosper. Undoubtedly, the clear division of roles within the oikos provided a separation between husband and wife. Even in a physical sense, the blueprint structure of the house itself defined this domestic partition. The "women's quarters" were usually situated in the south end of the household, while the "men's quarters" were located in the north end. Both quarters had their own entrances, yet from the "women's quarters" it was not possible to enter the "men's quarters."
Most households had at least one female slave, so that the wife could remain in the house. Since respectable women in ancient Athens were not allowed to be outside without a male escort, the female slave was there to do all the errands outside the home. This is true only for wealthy women; poor women were not able to be kept in seclusion since they would not be able to afford a female slave to run their errands (Pomeroy 79). The wife of a male citizen was not allowed to be outside the home without a male escort because any contact with another male was seen as a potential threat to her oikos (Fantham et al 101-103). Only women who were slaves, concubines, or poor women who could not afford slaves were allowed to roam the streets unattended. However, women married to male citizens and could afford a slave, had to be escorted at all public appearances. The main reason why respectable women were so closely guarded by men was in order to ensure that all children produced by the wives were legitimate (Golden 81).
The main tasks that were required for a good wife to know in her oikos were weaving, cooking, cleaning, childcare and producing clothing for the family. It seems that Athenian wives only stayed within the confines of their oikos, yet they did maintain relations with other women. The interaction between women in ancient Athens was very intensive; many women would exchange household goods, gossip and help each other with childcare (Fantham et al 103-105). This process would prove vital in sustaining a sense of community and assistance between women in ancient Athens. The work of a slave and the work of a free women (married or not) were very similar in ancient Athens. Since much of the work was the same, they would spend a lot of time together. This inherently created a bond between free and slave women. This does not hold true for the relationship between male slaves and male citizens. Since only male citizens were allowed to be a part of the public sphere and to be a part of the government, and male slaves had to work the fields and other low tasks, the division was clearer (Pomeroy 71).
A woman's importance in Athenian society was her ability to produce male heirs and to raise them to become citizens in the polis. It was only important for the woman to produce one male for her oikos to ensure that the family lineage would continue. If the woman bore more than one male it was no threat to the family because one or more of the males would have been killed in battle. Obviously the birth of a female was not seen as much of a joyous occasion, as compared with the birth of a male, but if the daughter could be married to a wealthy man, then her oikos could become wealthier (Pomeroy 69). In order for a male child born in Athens to be considered a citizen, both parents had to have been born in Athens as well. Not only was the lineage of the father important but also that of the mother. This contradicted the medical beliefs of Athenians at the time, because women were seen as just the "pot" (womb) that the semen (seed) has planted itself in (Pomeroy 70). This theory held that the mother had no relation to the child itself. Even though the man impregnated her with his "seed," she was still just the "pot." The idea that the mother was not actually related to her children changed the relationship between mother and child. Under the law the mother was not considered related to her children, but it does not mean that an Athenian mother was not attached to her own children. This seclusion of the mother from the rest of her family (children and husband) is another way in which males of Athenian society made women seem even more inferior to them. Children in ancient Athens were raised by the slaves of the household and also by the mother. The treatment of the daughter compared to the treatment of the son in the oikos was different. The daughter was taught certain skills that would aid her in taking care of her own oikos as well as skills in being a "good wife." The son would spend much of his time with the men of the household and was taught politics as well as philosophy (Golden 83). The relationship between the mother and her children was not as intimate as mothers' care for their children today. A wealthy mother spent almost none of her time with her children because she had many tutors and slaves to teach her children. A poor mother would spend almost all her time with her children because she could not afford any slaves nor could she afford tutors. It seems that Athenian mothers did not care much for their children. Since they are not considered her own, the emotional attachment towards the child may not have been as prominent. The restriction that a woman had in her own oikos is similar to her restrictions in the public sphere.
The life of a woman in relation to the polis was just as restricted was her life in the oikos. Women under the law were not seen as citizens in the polis and neither were slaves, freedwomen, freedmen, or foreigners. Women were not allowed to speak, vote or attend meetings in the ekklesia (citizen assembly). According to Just, citizenship in ancient Athens was defined as "free adult males of recognized Athenian parentage" (13-15). This notion of citizenship is very different from our idea of a citizen today; it was seen as a privilege and thus closely guarded by the males in society. The ideal citizen was to serve the state and to maintain its existence, but the polis was not established to serve the citizens themselves. Instead, the polis functioned as a "men's club" which included a minority of the population (Just 14-17).
The only areas of public life that wives and children of Athenian citizens would be allowed to participate in were religious festivals and ceremonies. The participation of a woman in these ceremonies meant that she was the wife or child of an Athenian citizen. Slaves, concubines and prostitutes were not allowed to participate in these cults or festivals (Humphreys 46-47). The role of a priestess in ancient Athens was very important to the state in that they would conduct religious ceremonies, each different depending on the cult the priestess was a part of (Just 23). They were held in high regard because of their virginity as well as for their service to the gods. The cult of the Olympian Goddess Athena was only one of many cults in which women were allowed to participate. This is one of the main cults and was held in high regard in ancient Athens since Athena was the city's patron goddess (Pomeroy 75). A priestess in this cult only became one if she was a descendent from the noble family of Eteoboutadae. These women were considered very important in society since they were praying to the patron goddess of Athens.
The main festival celebrating the Olympian goddess Athena was the Panathenaea. This festival honors the birthday of Athena and was celebrated annually (Pomeroy 75). The kanephorioi were young virgin girls that were elected by noble families in order to carry sacred baskets during the parade. The virginity of the kanephorioi was extremely important because they were carrying sacred offerings and instruments. Every fourth year of the Panathenaea festival, another robe (peplos) was woven to be worn by the image of Athena. The arrephoroi were girls between the ages of seven and eleven who wove the beginning of the cloth. The rest of the robe was woven by other women of the cult who were again all chosen by noble families in ancient Athens (Pomeroy 76). Since the religious festival was the only aspect of a women's life that was public, they too also formed as much of an exclusive club as men did in the polis. By having women only allowed in certain areas of the home, and some were not even allowed to go outside, it created a bond and seclusion of everyone else. The women spend all their time together and so they created their own club as the men have done in the polis itself.
The importance of producing a male heir in ancient Athens was the driving force for the seclusion of women from public life. Women were not seen as citizens by the polis, but yet they were still required to fill the household and festival responsibilities as if they were one. Although women could not exercise any legal rights, they were vital to the survival of their oikoi and the structure of the polis itself.
